1) Politics (政治)

Politics. Literally, it means the governance of a state through policy. I looked it up; the term "Zhengzhi" (政治) can be traced back to the Pre-Qin period. In the Book of Documents: Officers of Zhou, it is written: "The gains and losses of politics (Zhengzhi), they can be known." In ancient Chinese, the original meaning of "Zheng" (政) was "to govern or manage state affairs"—administration and governance are both this Zheng: the act of governing a state and executing state policies. "Zhi" (治) means "to stabilize or rectify." That is to say, wherever there is chaos, or where people's livelihoods are in ruin, or where the commoners are full of grievances and unhappiness, these must be improved through "Zhi" (governance). It carries the meaning of coordinating resources, harmonizing management plans, and personnel to push for national progress. "Politics" itself is a very concrete act of coordination, planning, and organizing—whether for a sovereign, a republic, or an empire—rather than an abstract discipline. There is a scholarship to it; it is a very specific subject that manifests one's ability, vision, mindset, priority-ranking skills, and experience, and it requires very specific talents.

Conversely, "Politics" originates from the Greek "polis" (πόλις), meaning "city-state"; "politikos" (πολιτικός) refers to "affairs of the city-state," i.e., the governance of the state or public affairs. Aristotle’s Politics was originally Πολιτικά, meaning "the study of city-state affairs." The etymology of "Politics" emphasizes participation in and governance of public affairs; essentially, it stresses the activity of citizens participating in the management of the city-state. That is, everyone participates, everyone has rights, and everyone deliberates together. It distributes rights, responsibilities, and obligations equally among every citizen—though at that time, "citizens" did not include women, minors, or slaves.

Chinese "politics" is the Art of the Monarch. From the Pre-Qin to the Qing Dynasty, the meaning of politics was a top-down governance from the monarch to the bureaucracy to the commoners. It was not about equality, coordination, or resource scheduling; it had a sense of "looking down" in it. In Confucian thought, the emphasis is on "cultivating oneself, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world," with legitimacy coming from "Heaven’s Mandate" or "Orthodoxy." Han Fei emphasized "Rule of Law," or rather a trinity of Method (Shu), Law (Fa), and Power (Shi): the essence of politics is the art of ruling and manipulation; a ruler should not talk of benevolence but should subdue human nature through "Law," prevent being cheated through "Method," and awe the ministers through "Power." Han Fei might have been a Pua (pick-up artist/manipulation) master.

Meanwhile, the Book of Rites emphasized "Rule by Rites" (Lizhi). In the Book of Rites, "Li" (礼) is not ritual in the narrow sense, but a grand system covering family ethics, social hierarchy, political systems, and behavioral norms. While working on Creation of the Gods (the film), I learned about these "etiquettes" through my work; they are truly complex. Dozens or hundreds of musical instruments during sacrifices, and all sorts of clothing—extravagant and wasteful. Here, "Li" is seen as the bridge between the Way of Heaven and the Way of Man; it is the way society operates in an orderly fashion. The core political philosophy of the Book of Rites is: a good society is not maintained by punishment or regulations, but by people consciously adhering to hierarchy, propriety, and behavioral norms. To me, this is a fairy tale. How is it possible for everyone to be "conscious"? Moreover, such red tape is a waste of time and low in efficiency. If everyone is trapped in these etiquettes, who has time for serious business? Looking at it this way, Japan was also deeply influenced by this. Although in reality, there is still rule by men, rule by "Chengguan" (urban management), rule by "Firewall," etc., overall, "Zhengzhi" from the beginning had no concept of a "citizen." There were only concepts of "commoners" and "bureaucrats"—it is an upper-level technique, not a public affair in which the whole people can participate. Therefore, the so-called "economic base determines the superstructure" also means that the economic base at the bottom determines those structures at the top. That is, whether the economy is good or not has nothing to do with non-upper-level people. For ordinary people, self-sufficiency can be very happy; the economic base does not determine the "lower structure" or "middle structure."

The Greek "polis" in "politics" means city-state, a space where free citizens directly participate in politics: for example, metropolis (metro means mother, i.e., the mother-theme or main city); megalopolis (mega means super large); cosmopolis (international metropolis); Minneapolis (mini is Dakota for "water," so it's a city in Minnesota). From the Roman Republic through the Enlightenment to modern times, the main concepts of politics have been: popular sovereignty, checks and balances, and representative democracy. Aristotle said: "Man is a political animal," meaning humans must live in public life and construct a community through rational deliberation (excluding women, minors, and slaves). Politics involves the maneuvering of various parties, each promoting their own ideas, or people with the power to influence swinging public opinion for their private gain, struggling for interests, etc. In ancient Greece, "people who did not participate in politics" were called idiotēs, meaning "private person," which later became "idiot," meaning a fool. Under such a system, if you don't participate in deliberation, others will make decisions for you; not participating in political life is indeed a bit inappropriate.

Conversely, Chinese politics has the concept of "judging a hero by success or failure"—whoever is strongest rises, can be overthrown at any time, and once becoming the monarch, is above ten thousand. At least my parents fully endorse this set of rules. They don't care how a "monarch" became a monarch—whether by eliminating dissidents, purging those who once died for them, violent suppression, brainwashing, or pretending to be socialist while maintaining the status quo and not disturbing privileged groups—all while the Center, represented by the President, balances everything in the country. Whatever the Center cannot finish or do is passed down to local levels through vague big talk, so-called instructions, and so-called thoughts. This might work for a small country, but China is so big, has so many people, and such vast differences in culture and language—this is likely not the optimal solution. Therefore, administrative costs are super high, with 100 million Party members participating in governance.

2) Democracy (民主)

Democracy comes from the Greek dēmokratía (δημοκρατία). Dēmos (δήμος) is the people, and kratos (κράτος) is power or rule, meaning "rule by the people." Athens was originally a city-state ruled by aristocrats, but social contradictions constantly erupted; the gap between rich and poor was too large, and many commoners were enslaved due to debt. Political exclusion was severe, as only nobles could participate in governance. Civil strife was frequent, requiring a new mechanism to maintain stability and integrate society. This is actually similar to China's previous situation—most of the time spent in multi-state warfare, with social contradictions becoming sharp periodically. They say socialism can avoid these cyclical dynasties, but socialism is the step after capitalism; you can't skip it.

At this time, several key reformers appeared in Athens, primarily Solon. He is usually called Solon of Athens, or Σόλων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος in Greek. He is hailed as one of the Seven Sages of Greece; a statesman, legislator, and poet. In ancient Greece, the structure of a person's name was usually the Name, followed by where they came from, or the Name plus the father's name. This is often seen in Game of Thrones.

Solon was born into an aristocratic family in Athens, but the family fortune had declined. In his youth, he engaged in commerce and traveled widely, coming into contact with various cultures, which gave him a deep understanding of social problems. Solon was not a "literary poet"; his poems were not lyrical but used to expound ideas, advise the people, and criticize enemies. As it turns out, no matter what the reform is, expressing and spreading thoughts is the first step. Of course, forcefully coercing others to agree with one's thoughts is still quite inappropriate. Early Athens was ruled by an aristocratic oligarchy, with political rights completely concentrated in a few families. A large number of small farmers and craftsmen fell into debt slavery, some even sold abroad as slaves. The social structure was on the verge of collapse—corruption at the top, despair at the bottom, and anxiety in the middle. Historians generally believe that without mediation, Athens might have followed Sparta or Corinth into military dictatorship. Some radicals demanded the redistribution of land, the abolition of all debts, and the execution of nobles. Factions also appeared within the nobility; some wanted "a little reform to keep status," while others advocated military suppression.

At this time, Solon was "jointly pushed" as the arbitrator, or "Archon," because he was the most suitable. He was from the nobility but did not depend on the powerful; he was a merchant and understood the suffering of the lower classes; he was a poet with the power of language to spread ideas across classes; and he showed a "state-first" posture in war, once using poetry to boost morale and recover lost territory. Archon was the "consul" of ancient Greece, usually held by nobles in rotation. Solon was "specially appointed" as an arbitrator with legislative powers—"Arbitrator with full powers"—for a term of one year; his status was like a "provisional republic president + constitution maker." During this period, he carried out reforms.

He issued the Solonian Code, abolishing debt slavery (seisachtheia, "shaking off the burden of debt"), which was the most explosive social reset in all of Athens. He redeemed citizens sold into slavery and brought them home. He divided citizens into four income classes: the higher could hold office, the lower could vote, forming "limited political equality" for the first time. In addition, he wrote poetry. Solon did not use orders or coercion to push reform, but wrote poems and recited them to the citizens, spreading them publicly so they could "feel" his middle-way philosophy. In these poems, he was not a "boaster" but a self-restrainer. He wrote: "I have the power to overturn the privileges of the nobles, and to stir the craze of the commoners; but I choose to plant a scale of justice between the two."

After the reforms, Solon did not cling to power; he proactively proposed "self-exile" for 10 years. He believed that if he stayed, no matter what he did, he would be turned into a dictator by the new nobility. He believed a state governed by law should not rely on one person, but on a system. Leaving was a kind of "political self-limitation": I am not the holder of power; I am the one who sets the rules. This "limited self" is the earliest modern governance ethic—the authority of the legislator comes from "not controlling the execution of the law" rather than being condescending. But at this time, "democracy" was still not universal participation, but participation by property-owning citizens.

Solon did not overthrow the entire social order; his core philosophy was "Balance"—neither letting the nobles continue doing as they pleased nor letting the commoners flip the table completely. He implemented seisachtheia, abolishing the debt mechanism that used the person as collateral, redeeming enslaved Athenian citizens, and banning the use of "free citizen" status as a guarantee in the future. This was not "robbing the rich to help the poor," but preventing the entire free class from being dragged into slavery. He preserved the "free foundation" of the city-state. He shifted political rights from bloodline to "wealth," distributing rights according to the medimnoi (bushel) system:

• Pentacosiomedimnoi (500-bushel class): could hold high office.

• Hippeis (Knights, 300–500 bushels): could hold middle-level office.

• Zeugitae (Yoke-men, 200–300 bushels): had basic political rights.

• Thetes (Proletarians, <200 bushels): could only participate in the assembly and jury.

  This structure caused "differences in class participation," but everyone had some say. This laid the institutional foundation for democratization but controlled the pace of reform to prevent an aristocratic backlash.

He reformed the legal system, replacing private feuds and blood vendettas with the rule of law. He established the jury court system, the Heliaia, where all free men had the right to be judged by a jury. He allowed commoners to sue officials, breaking the aristocratic monopoly on justice. He abolished the laws of Draco—extremely harsh laws, such as the death penalty for theft. (Side note: Draco shares the same word as the last name of the Malfoy family in Harry Potter; it's J.K. Rowling's metaphor, and such metaphors are everywhere in her work). He also constructed an assembly for public supervision. He established the "Council of Four Hundred" (Boule), with 100 people selected from each tribe to draft proposals and supervise officials; the Council had the power to audit officials—the predecessor of the later "Council of Five Hundred." These are all systems visible in today's society.

His self-exile is very interesting to me. This system, known as Ostracism, was later followed and used to expel those at risk of "becoming a tyrant," functioning as a non-violent political anti-corruption mechanism. Seeing this, I can't help but marvel at how great the ancient Greek philosophers were—they thought of everything. Though not perfect, their self-restraint was strong. As they advertised, it was a very "noble" character. This isn't big talk; it is cultivation, a demand on oneself, compassion for the people, and a profound understanding of one's own imperfections.

3) The "Seven Sages of Greece"

The Seven Sages is actually a loose concept—a cultural symbol organized by later generations rather than a formal organization that existed at the time. Similar to China’s "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove," "Eight Great Masters of Tang and Song," or the "Hundred Schools of Thought," they belonged to different city-states and might have known each other, but were not close friends who visited each other every day.

In the 5th century BC, in Plato’s dialogue Protagoras, Socrates mentioned some figures considered wise. In Plato, Protagoras, 343a-b, Socrates says: they (the predecessors) were not like you sophists, full of empty talk, but expressed wisdom through maxims. For example, our Solon of Athens, Pittacus of Mytilene, Bias of Priene, Cleobulus of Lindos, Myson of Chenae, Chilon of Sparta, and Thales of Miletus...

By the 4th century BC, figures like Aristotle’s disciple Demetrius of Phalerum formally proposed the "Seven Sages" theory. Demetrius of Phalerum served as the ruler of Athens from 317 BC to 307 BC. During this period, he made several reforms to Athens' laws and political systems. Culturally, he organized and promoted the concept of the "Seven Sages." "Disciple" was not a formally registered student in the modern sense. The term "disciple" meant someone was long-influenced by a master in thought, scholarship, and lifestyle, thereby continuing or developing that tradition. In Greek philosophy, "disciple" was a relationship of intellectual heritage, usually involving face-to-face learning (like attending lectures or discussions), and continuing the school or theory after the teacher’s death. So to say someone was a "disciple of Aristotle" means he studied at Aristotle's Lyceum, or was deeply influenced by his philosophical methods and political thoughts, or perhaps became a successor or a branch developer of the Peripatetic School.

Demetrius was born in Athens around 360 BC. As an upper-class youth from the Phalerum area of Athens, Demetrius had access to the most advanced educational resources. The Lyceum was the new school founded by Aristotle, emphasizing empirical research, classification systems, and ethical politics. Demetrius likely received instruction directly from Aristotle or his students, like Theophrastus, during his youth. After Aristotle’s death in 322 BC, Theophrastus became his successor. At this time, Demetrius maintained close ties with the school and was appointed Archon (governor) of Athens under Macedonian control (317–307 BC), which itself shows he gained double recognition from the "philosophical elite" and the "Macedonian royalty." This also echoes Aristotle’s relationship with Alexander the Great. People of this faction/school were not just philosophers; they were "thinker-bureaucrats" who held power.

Philip II of Macedonia once invited Aristotle to be the tutor for his 13-year-old son, Alexander the Great. Aristotle taught him not only philosophy and rhetoric but also political ethics and the art of kingship. The main subjects he taught were: Ethics and Politics (how to govern a city-state, power, and responsibility); Rhetoric and Logic (public speaking, debate, logical training); Biology and Natural Philosophy (which led Alexander to later bring scientists on his expeditions); Literature and Homeric Epics (it is said Alexander carried an annotated copy of the Iliad everywhere); and self-cultivation, "paideia," said to be the core concept of philosophy governing politics.

I looked into what paideia specifically refers to. Paideia is written as παιδεία in Greek, and the etymology comes from pais (παῖς), meaning child. The original meaning is "upbringing or education," but it's not limited to learning knowledge; it seems to refer to the cultivation of a person from a child into a rational free person, a public person, a citizen. It's a bit like self-becoming. From a child to a rational free person. Not just in ancient Greece—every classroom in every country in the world should have a copy of this subject taught by Aristotle. The world would become a better place. This subject includes many different dimensions: Knowledge (learning poetry, rhetoric, mathematics, philosophy, history); Physical (physical training, military preparation); Virtue (training in self-restraint, moderation, justice, cultivating civic responsibility); Social (encouraging active participation in public affairs, debate, deliberation); and Religiosity (learning to revere the gods, follow rites, maintain humility). Is it not comprehensive? Rather than self-cultivation, I think it’s better translated as "Civic Education." In modern society, we have our own "civic education," yet it can no longer rely on a single authoritative philosopher; everyone needs to seek their own citizenship and the education that suits them. These early educational experiences directly influenced Alexander the Great to carry a large number of books during his conquest of the East and to respect philosophers. Aristotle, in turn, was able to found the Lyceum, greatly increasing his political status.

When serving as Archon of Athens, Demetrius cautiously reformed the legal system, cultural policies, and the speech education system. Later, he went into exile in Egypt and assisted Ptolemy I in establishing the Library of Alexandria, being known as a "cultural consultant." Later still, he wrote books prolifically; though most are lost, he is said to have written over 70 works. The subjects spanned rhetoric, ethics, poetics, and political systems. This is the typical trajectory of the "Aristotelian school": from rational training to institutional design, to practical governance, and finally to cultural construction in retirement.

According to later records, Demetrius listed seven figures considered models of wisdom and virtue in his works, the so-called "Seven Sages." They were: Thales of Miletus, Pittacus of Mytilene, Bias of Priene, Solon of Athens, Cleobulus of Lindos, Chilon of Sparta, and Periander of Corinth. These seven sages were essentially a "roughly contemporary generation in the same historical period," though not completely overlapping, living roughly between 650 BC and 550 BC.