1）The Corruption and Extinction of the Knowledge of God

"Experience testifies that although God has sown the seed of religion in every heart, barely one in a hundred cherishes what they have received, and none brings it to maturity, much less to fruit in due season. While some vanish into vanity through superstition, others willfully commit evil to revolt against God; consequently, they all fall away from the true knowledge of God, and true piety vanishes from the world. When I say some fall into superstition due to error, I do not imply that their guilt is excused by ignorance, for their blindness is always intertwined with pride, vanity, and stubbornness. In seeking God, miserable men do not rise above themselves as they ought, but follow the folly of the flesh, forsaking the right path of observation, and judge God by vain and curious speculation; herein their pride and vanity are revealed. Their conception of God is not according to how He has revealed Himself, but based on their own arrogant imaginations."

"Once this breach is opened, whatever path they take, they must tend toward destruction. Whatever worship or service they later offer to God cannot be counted as done for Him, for they worship not God, but the figments of their own brains. Regarding this fall, Paul specifically says: 'Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools' (Romans 1:22); and previously: 'Their thoughts became vain' (Romans 1:21). To prevent anyone from excusing them, he adds that their blindness is well-deserved, because they were not content with sobriety but arrogated to themselves, indulging in pride, vanity, and evil. Therefore, their folly is inexcusable; this folly arises not only from vain curiosity but also from false confidence and an immoderate desire to exceed the limits of human knowledge."

"As David said, 'The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God' (Psalm 14:1), this refers—as will be discussed below—specifically to those who extinguish the light of their own nature and willfully settle into stupidity. We see many who indulge in sin, hardened in their nature, striving to exclude from their memory the idea of God that nature suggests to their souls. To make their madness more detestable, the Psalmist says they openly deny God’s existence; this is not to say they erase His being, but because they strip Him of His justice and providence, shutting Him up in heaven as an idle idler. Since nothing is more contrary to the divine will than to abandon the rule of the world, leaving it to fate, and indulging men’s sins to let them live in debauchery, whoever lacks fear of heavenly judgment and indulges in worldliness is denying God."

"Once the wicked have willfully closed their eyes, God strikes their hearts with darkness, so they have eyes but cannot see, as a righteous retribution. David explains well elsewhere: 'The transgression of the wicked saith within his heart, that there is no fear of God before his eyes' (Psalm 36:1); and says they compete in wickedness and flatter themselves, thinking God does not watch them. Although they reluctantly admit God's existence, they rob Him of His glory by denying His power. According to Paul’s testimony, God 'cannot deny himself' (2 Timothy 2:13), because He is immutable; thus, those who portray Him as a vain and lifeless idol truly deny God. One more thing to state: they try their best to turn their backs on their natural understanding and forget God in their hearts, even wanting to extinguish Him in heaven, but their folly ultimately cannot escape God’s judgment. That they dare to resist the divine will without restraint and follow blind impulses is because they have dulled their memory of God."

"Thus, the invalid defenses made by many for their superstitions are utterly overthrown; for they believe that as long as they pay some attention to religion, no matter how absurd, it is enough, yet they do not consider that true religion must take the divine will as its permanent rule. God is always the same; He is not a phantom that transforms according to every person's fantasy. It is easy to see how superstition mocks God with hypocritical worship while intending to please Him. Since superstition only follows what God despises, it either contemptuously ignores or openly rejects what God delights in. Those who worship God in newly invented ways are actually worshipping the products of their own fantasies; for unless they first fashioned a god that fits their own false and foolish ideas, they would never dare to neglect God so."

"Therefore, Paul considers a vague and uncertain idea of God to be ignorance of God. He said: 'When ye knew not God, ye did service unto them which by nature are no gods' (Galatians 4:8). Elsewhere he says the Ephesians were 'without God' (Ephesians 2:12), as they were outsiders to the correct knowledge of the one true God. It matters little whether you believe in one or several gods, for either way, you deviate and rebel against the true God; having rejected Him, all you have left is an abominable idol. Therefore, we must agree with the claim of Lactantius: that a religion not conforming to the truth cannot be counted as true."

"There is another sin: they only think of God against their will and do not draw near to Him unless forced; they come before Him not out of a voluntary fear born from respect for His greatness, but out of a slavish fear produced by the unavoidable pressure of divine judgment; they are pained by this fear. What Statius said—that fear first created gods in the world—applies only to these irreverent people. Those alienated from God’s justice only desire to overthrow the judgment they know is set for punishing the wicked. With such intent, they oppose the Lord of judgment; when they realize they cannot resist the Lord’s arm, they tremble in terror. They perform some religious forms to avoid completely despising the majesty of the God who presses upon them; meanwhile, they continue to defile themselves, indulging in vices and committing great sins until they destroy God’s holy law and His justice. In any case, their feigned fear of God does not prevent them from delighting in evil; they would rather follow their carnal indulgence than be restrained by the Holy Spirit. Since this is only a hypocritical shadow of religion, hardly even a phantom, the difference between this disordered concept of God and the piety that exists in a believer’s heart as the root of religion can be easily inferred."

"However, hypocrites who distance themselves from God, to pretend loyalty to Him, resort to superstitious tricks. They ought to serve Him throughout their lives, but in almost every action, they rebel against Him without hesitation, seeking only occasionally to please Him with meager sacrifices. They should serve Him with a holy life and an honest heart, but they invent trivial and worthless rituals to seek His favor. They become more indulgent and sink into depravity because they believe they can fulfill their duty to God with ridiculous compensations. In short, they ought to trust God, but they forget Him and trust themselves or other creatures. Finally, their errors accumulate so much that the faint light meant to reveal God’s glory is obscured and eventually extinguished by the darkness of sin. The awareness that God exists is a seed that cannot be uprooted and remains forever; however, this seed has corrupted, so it can only bear the worst fruit. This further proves what I now affirm: that the concept of God is naturally imprinted on the human heart, because even the wicked are forced to acknowledge this concept. In times of peace, they mock God and recklessly disparage His power, but once oppressed by despair, despair stimulates them to seek God and forces them to pray, proving they are not ignorant of God, but that the emotions which should have been manifested were suppressed by stubbornness."

2）The Manifestation of God in the Universe

"Since a perfect happy life is contained in the knowledge of God, so that everyone may reach a state of happiness, God has not only sown the seed of religion in the human heart but has also manifested Himself in the creation of every part of the universe, appearing daily to all so that they cannot open their eyes without seeing Him. His essence is truly incomprehensible, so His majesty cannot be seen by human senses; yet He has clearly expressed His glory upon all His works like a seal, so that even the most ignorant cannot excuse themselves on the pretext of ignorance. Thus the Psalmist says: 'Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment' (Psalm 104:2); he means that God first appeared in visible form at the time of creation, and the glory He then manifested is still prominent everywhere today. The Psalmist compares the vast sky to a palace, saying: 'Who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters: who maketh the clouds his chariot: who walketh upon the wings of the wind'; and takes the winds and lightnings as His messengers. Because the glory of His power and wisdom shines more brilliantly above, the vast firmament is called His palace."

"Wherever your gaze lands, there is no atom in the universe in which you do not see His glory. When you behold this magnificent machine of the universe, you will be struck with wonder at its infinite splendor. Therefore, the author of Hebrews skillfully regards the world as a manifestation of invisible things (Hebrews 11:3), because the symmetry of the universe is like a mirror in which we can see the God who is originally invisible and without form. Thus the Psalmist says the heavens use a language understandable to all, so that even the most ignorant in the world may have some knowledge of God through their clear witness. But Paul more clearly affirms this manifestation that aids the knowledge of God, saying: 'For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead' (Romans 1:20)."

"Regarding His wonderful wisdom, there is countless evidence in heaven and earth; this evidence is found not only in the difficult matters studied by astronomy, medicine, and all natural sciences but also in those things that even the most ignorant in the world can see as soon as they open their eyes. Indeed, those skilled in learning can further explore the mysteries of divine wisdom; however, a lack of scientific knowledge does not prevent one from observing the works of God sufficient to inspire admiration for His creation. As for the study of the stars' movements, positions, distances, and characteristics, specialized skill, precision, and diligence are required; as God's providence is further revealed through these scientific discoveries, the human heart should be raised to contemplate His glory. Since even the lowliest and most foolish, as long as they have eyes to see, cannot be ignorant of the beauty of God's work manifested in the countless celestial bodies that are ever-changing yet orderly, it is clear the Lord fully manifests His wisdom to every person on earth. Only people with extraordinary skill can use Galen's precise method to examine the relationship, symmetry, beauty, and use of various parts of the human body, but the structure of the human body is generally considered so ingenious that its Creator deserves to be the object of praise."

"Therefore, some ancient philosophers aptly called man a microcosm, for he is a beautiful specimen of God's power, mercy, and wisdom; if we intend to study, the mysteries hidden within him are sufficient for our exploration and attention. Thus, after Paul said that blind people should 'seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him,' he immediately added: 'he be not far from every one of us' (Acts 17:27), for in every person’s heart there is an indubitable knowledge of the heavenly mercy that grants him life. If the concept of God is not to be sought outside ourselves, how lazy are those who refuse to look within to find God! Thus David, after praising the widely prominent and wonderful name and glory of God, said: 'What is man, that thou art mindful of him?' and: 'Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength' (Psalm 8:4, 2). This not only clearly says that mankind is a mirror reflecting God's work, but also that even nursing infants can proclaim His glory without needing other eloquent speakers; therefore, God does not hesitate to bring forth infants, making them full of power to refute the madness of those with evil and proud hearts who wish to destroy God's holy name. Paul therefore also cited Aratus’s words: 'For we are also his offspring' (Acts 17:28), because His granting us such beautiful qualities has proved He is our Father. Therefore, pagan poets, suggested by common sense and experience, called Him the Father of mankind. Unless one first experiences His paternal love and is moved to love Him, no one will ever completely dedicate themselves to God."

"The vile ingratitude of the human heart is revealed here. Instead of praising the wonderful work of God's creation and the immeasurable favors granted to them, they become more self-satisfied. They see how wonderfully God works in their hearts; experience tells them how numerous the blessings they receive from God's abundant grace are. Whether they are willing or not, they are forced to admit these are evidences of His divinity, yet they suppress this knowledge in their hearts. Truly, as long as they do not regard what is received from heaven as their own, thereby extinguishing the light that guides their souls to a clearer knowledge of God, they might as well seek it within themselves. Even today, there are many with peculiar temperaments who do not hesitate to corrupt all the divine seeds sown in human nature to bury God’s holy name. Finding countless evidences of God in both body and soul, they actually use this beautiful work as a pretext to deny His existence—how detestable this madness is! They certainly would not say their difference from beasts is by chance; but they consider it to be by nature, taking nature as the creator of all things and erasing God. In every part of their bodies from head to toe, they see the subtlety of the creator's craftsmanship, and here they also substitute nature for God. Especially the soul's agile movements, noble functions, and beautiful endowments all indicate an undisguisable God, unless like the Epicureans or the Cyclops giants, one dares to use such beautiful endowments as a ground to oppose God. Since so many treasures of heavenly wisdom are used to govern this five-foot body, does the entire universe not have this privilege? As for saying there is some mechanism in the soul corresponding to the parts of the body, this does not cover God’s glory but rather manifests it. Let Epicurus answer this: how do atoms assemble to mix food and drink, causing some to be excreted and some to turn into blood, and making various parts of the body perform different tasks, as if many souls were harmoniously governing one body?"

"My current business is not with the pigs in this pen; what I say is directed at those influenced by absurdly subtle theories, trying to indirectly use Aristotle's rigid rules to destroy the immortality of the soul and strip God of His rights. Because the organs of the body are governed by the functions of the soul, they believe the soul and body are so closely related that it cannot exist apart from the body; they use the praise of nature to strive to exclude God's holy name. But the soul's power is by no means limited by physical functions; I ask, what does the measurement of celestial bodies, the counting of stars, the estimation of stellar bodies, the inference of distances, the speed of motion, and the angles of longitude and latitude have to do with the flesh? I indeed admit astronomy has its uses; however, I want to show that these deep studies of celestial bodies do not require the cooperation of the flesh but rely on the action of the soul, which is completely unrelated to the flesh. I have presented one example; readers can infer others. The ingenious changes in all aspects of the mind enable it to observe heaven and earth, combine past and present, remember the past, use imagination to conceive freely, and invent and create various arts—these are clear evidences of the divinity within man. Furthermore, in sleep, the mind acts freely, and can even think of many useful ideas, study various problems, and even plan for the future. Does this not show that the mark of immortality engraved in the human heart is indelible? For what reason does a man who comes from God refuse to acknowledge his Creator? Through the judgment we have received, we can distinguish right from wrong; is there no one in heaven to execute judgment? We even have traces of wise speculation in our dreams; is there no God ruling the universe? Should we be honored as inventors of many useful arts while defrauding God of His glory? But experience tells us that all we have is given by a supreme Lord. Some argue incessantly that there is a secret inspiration giving life to the whole world; such noise is not only irrational but completely blasphemous."

3）The Authority of Scripture and Divine Providence

"After establishing in Chapter 6 that 'God can only be known through Scripture,' The Institutes of the Christian Religion proceeds to a more fundamental question: where does the authority of Scripture itself come from? Calvin cuts off a seemingly reasonable but actually dangerous path here—Scripture is not truth because 'the Church recognizes it.' On the contrary, the Church exists because Scripture existed first. The authority of Scripture is not built on institutions, historical judgments, or rational arguments, but on a more unavoidable premise: God speaks in it. The reason a person is 'convinced' is not because logic is persuaded, but because the Holy Spirit completes the confirmation within the human heart. Reason and evidence can assist, but can never become the foundation."

"After confirming the source of authority for knowing God, Calvin turns to discuss 'who' God is. The focus here is not on philosophical definitions, but on reminding people: God's attributes can only be known in His actions. God is one, eternal, self-existent, almighty, and righteous, but these words are not concepts for people to play with, but realities requiring a response of awe. Any impulse born of curiosity to pry into God’s essence, in Calvin's view, will lead one away from true knowledge. It is in this context that his attitude toward 'images of God' appears exceptionally strong. Turning God into a visible image is not a matter of form, but of essence. All idols are essentially compressions and distortions of the Infinite. Mankind naturally yearns for objects that can be seen and touched, so they constantly try to drag God into the sensory world. But this behavior does not bring one closer to God; instead, it creates a manipulable substitute. Idolatry has never been a leftover historical problem, but a problem of human nature's structure."

"Thus, Calvin further emphasizes: the object of worship can only be God Himself, and it must be the complete, undivided God. True worship is not a pile of rituals, nor a surge of emotion, but the heart's acknowledgment of God's sovereignty. Once a person directs ultimate meaning, glory, or dependence toward any creature—whether an individual, power, institution, or idea—worship has already shifted. God's glory here is not a moral slogan, but a non-negotiable boundary. In discussing the Trinity, Calvin does not try to 'explain God clearly,' but strives to avoid errors. He rejects the blurring of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit into one, and also rejects viewing the Son and Holy Spirit as subordinate beings. He insists on a tension structure: God is one in essence and distinct in person. This is not a logical game, but to prevent people from substituting a simplified model for true faith. The Trinity here is not a mysterious decoration, but a minimum respect for God’s true way of existence."

"Subsequently, the perspective shifts from God Himself to the created world. The world is not a stage formed by chance, but a whole shaped by order, wisdom, and purpose. Angels are real created spiritual beings whose significance lies not in being studied or worshipped, but in executing God’s will; demons are equally real, but their status is always that of restricted, fallen creatures. Calvin deliberately suppresses all mystical impulses here, refusing to turn the spiritual world into an object of curiosity."

"When the discussion returns to 'man,' Calvin emphasizes that man was originally created in the image of God. This image is not an external form, but is embodied in reason, moral capacity, and the capacity to respond to God. Man originally had dignity and order, but this chapter does not rush to unfold the fall, but first establishes a reference coordinate: man was not 'this corrupt' from the beginning; the fall was a subsequent rupture. Speaking of God’s continuous management of the world, Calvin clearly denies 'fate' or 'chance' as ultimate explanations. God not only creates the world but also exercises sovereignty in every detail. Sometimes through tools, sometimes bypassing tools, and sometimes even contrary to human expectations. Even chaos, pain, and evil do not mean the world is out of control, but mean that human understanding is limited."

"Finally, Calvin brings all this back to real life. He points out that the purpose of this set of doctrines is not to provide philosophical comfort, but to shape people's attitude toward life. Truly understanding God’s providence should enable one to learn patience, temperance, and humility, rather than sliding toward fatalism or pushing responsibility onto 'God’s arrangement.' Here, faith is no longer an abstract system, but a recalibration of one's position in the world and oneself. This is the entire content of Volume One; I have no strength to look at Volumes Two and Three, you can look them up yourself if curious. I must pull the article back to my original question: how did Protestants end up in the New World? How did these fundamental beliefs shape the culture of this land? And what impact did they later have on the political structure?"